The theory rests on the assumption that Conservative governments in this time period made an accommodation with the social democratic policy . consensus theory of employability. Learning and employability are clearly supportive constructs but this relationship appears to be under represented and lacks clarity. Expands the latter into positional conflict theory, which explains how the market for credentials is rigged and how individuals are ranked in it. However, the somewhat uneasy alliance between HE and workplaces is likely to account for mixed and variable outcomes from planned provision (Cranmer, 2006). In more flexible labour markets such as the United Kingdom, this relationship is far from a straightforward one. The past decade in the United Kingdom has therefore seen a strong focus on employability skills, including communication, teamworking, ICT and self-management being built into formal curricula. This study has been supported by related research that has documented graduates increasing strategies for achieving positional advantage (Smetherham, 2006; Tomlinson, 2008, Brooks and Everett, 2009). research investigating employability from the employers' perspective has been qualitative in nature. This has some significant implications for the ways in which they understand their employability and the types of credentials and forms of capital around which this is built. A further policy response towards graduate employability has been around the enhancement of graduates skills, following the influential Dearing Report (1997). Hinchliffe, G. and Jolly, A. Knight, P. and Yorke, M. (2004) Learning, Curriculum and Employability in Higher Education, London: Routledge Falmer. The extent to which future work forms a significant part of their future life goals is likely to determine how they approach the labour market, as well as their own future employability. Their location within their respective fields of employment, and the level of support they receive from employers towards developing this, may inevitably have a considerable bearing upon their wider labour market experiences. Consensus theory, on the other hand, looks at how individuals interact and how this can lead to agreement. Little ( 2001 ) suggests, that it is a multi-dimensional construct, and there is a demand to separate between the factors relevant to the occupation and readying for work. <>stream Google Scholar. With increased individual expenditure, HE has literally become an investment and, as such, students may look to it for raising their absolute level of employability. Structural functionalists believe that society tends towards equilibrium and social order. This contrasts with more flexible liberal economies such as the United Kingdom, United States and Australia, characterised by more intensive competition, deregulation and lower employment tenure. Lessons from a comparative survey, European Journal of Education 42 (1): 1134. According to Keynes, the volume of employment in a country depends on the level of effective demand of the people for goods and services. Little (2001) suggests, that it is a multi-dimensional concept, and there is a need to distinguish between the factors relevant to the job and preparation for work. The purpose of this article is to show that the way employability is typically defined in official statements is seriously flawed because it ignores what will be called the 'duality of employability'. Such perceptions are likely to be reinforced by not only the increasingly flexible labour market that graduates are entering, but also the highly differentiated system of mass HE in the United Kingdom. Increasingly, graduates employability needs to be embodied through their so-called personal capital, entailing the integration of academic abilities with personal, interpersonal and behavioural attributes. Scott, P. (2005) Universities and the knowledge economy, Minerva 43 (3): 297309. Teichler, U. Yet at a time when stakes within the labour market have risen, graduates are likely to demand that this link becomes a more tangible one. Slider with three articles shown per slide. Little, B. Consensus theory is a social theory that holds a particular political or economic system as a fair system, and that social change should take place within the social institutions provided by it .Consensus theory contrasts sharply with conflict theory, which holds that social change is only achieved through conflict.. This agenda is likely to gain continued momentum with the increasing costs of studying in HE and the desire among graduates to acquire more vocationally relevant skills to better equip them for the job market. Graduates appear to be valued on a range of broad skills, dispositions and performance-based activities that can be culturally mediated, both in the recruitment process and through the specific contexts of their early working lives. (2008) Managing in the New Economy: Restructuring White-Collar Work in the USA, UK and Japan, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Tomlinson, M. (2007) Graduate employability and student attitudes and orientations to the labour market, Journal of Education and Work 20 (4): 285304. (1999) Higher education policy and the world of work: Changing conditions and challenges, Higher Education Policy 12 (4): 285312. Fugate and Kinicki (2008, p.9) describe career identity as "one's self-definition in the career context."Chope and Johnson (2008, p. 47) define career identity in a more scientific manner where they state that "career identity reflects the degree to which individuals define themselves in terms of a particular organisation, job, profession, or industry". Graduates are perceived as potential key players in the drive towards enhancing value-added products and services in an economy demanding stronger skill-sets and advanced technical knowledge. Employability. It seeks to explore shortcomings in the current employment of the concept of consensus, and in so doing to explain the continued relevance of conflict theory for sociological research. Ball, S.J. and Leathwood, C. (2006) Graduates employment and discourse of employability: A critical analysis, Journal of Education and Work 18 (4): 305324. Elias, P. and Purcell, K. (2004) The Earnings of Graduates in Their Early Careers: Researching Graduates Seven Years on. Collins, R. (2000) Comparative and Historical Patterns of Education, in M. Hallinan (ed.) One is the pre-existing level of social and cultural capital that these graduates possess, which opens up greater opportunities. Strangleman, T. (2007) The nostalgia for the permanence of work? What this has shown is that graduates see the link between participation in HE and future returns to have been disrupted through mass HE. Purists, believing that their employability is largely constitutive of their meritocratic achievements, still largely equate their employability with traditional hard currencies, and are therefore not so adept at responding to signals from employers. Non-traditional graduates or new recruits to the middle classes may be less skilled at reading the changing demands of employers (Savage, 2003; Reay et al., 2006). editors. Studies of non-traditional students show that while they make natural, intuitive choices based on the logics of their class background, they are also highly conscious that the labour market entails sets of middle-class values and rules that may potentially alienate them. Employability is a product consisting of a specific set of skills, such as soft, hard, technical, and transferable. The new UK coalition government, working within a framework of budgetary constraints, have been less committed to expansion and have begun capping student numbers (HEFCE, 2010). This may further entail experiencing adverse labour market experiences such as unemployment and underemployment. In the United Kingdom, for example, state commitment to public financing of HE has declined; although paradoxically, state continues to exert pressures on the system to enhance its outputs, quality and overall market responsiveness (DFE, 2010). Career choices tend to be made within specific action frames, or what they refer to as horizons for actions. Department for Education Skills (DFES). Similar to the Bowman et al. Power, S. and Whitty, G. (2006) Graduating and Graduations Within the Middle Class: The Legacy of an Elite Higher Education, Cardiff: Cardiff University, School of Social Sciences. (2010) Overqualifcation, job satisfaction, and increasing dispersion in the returns to graduate education, Oxford Economic Papers 62 (4): 740763. The perspective gained much currency in the mid 20th century in the works of Harvard sociologist Talcott Parsons, for whom . Little and Arthur's research shows similar patterns among European graduates, there are generally higher levels of graduate satisfaction with HE as a preparation for future employment, as well as much closer matching up between graduates credentials and the requirements of jobs. Universities have typically been charged with failing to instil in graduates the appropriate skills and dispositions that enable them to add value to the labour market. Consensus Theory: the Basics According to consensus theories, for the most part society works because most people are successfully socialised into shared values through the family However, there are concerns that the shift towards mass HE and, more recently, more whole-scale market-driven reforms may be intensifying class-cultural divisions in both access to specific forms of HE experience and subsequent economic outcomes in the labour market (Reay et al., 2006; Strathdee, 2011). This tends to manifest itself in the form of positional conflict and competition between different groups of graduates competing for highly sought-after forms of employment (Brown and Hesketh, 2004). At the same time, the seeming consensus regarding employability as an outcome with reference to employment or employment rates belies the complexity that surrounds the concept in the wider literature. Elias and Purcell's (2004) research has reported positive overall labour market outcomes in graduates early career trajectories 7 years on from graduation: in the main graduates manage to secure paid employment and enjoy comparatively higher earning than non-graduates. Smart, S., Hutchings, M., Maylor, U., Mendick, H. and Menter, I. Theory could be viewed as a coherent group of assumptions or propositions put forth to . Their findings relate to earlier work on Careership (Hodkinson and Sparkes, 1997), itself influenced by Bourdieu's (1977) theories of capital and habitus. Individuals have to flexibly adapt to a job market that places increasing expectation and demands on them; in short, they need to continually maintain their employability. The research by Archer et al. Hassard, J., McCann, L. and Morris, J.L. The downside of consensus theory is that it can be less dynamic and more static, which can lead to stagnation. Relatively high levels of personal investment are required to enhance one's employment profile and credentials, and to ensure that a return is made on one's investment in study. This also extends to subject areas where there has been a traditionally closer link between the curricula content and specific job areas (Wilton, 2008; Rae, 2007). Much of this is driven by a concern to stand apart from the wider graduate crowd and to add value to their existing graduate credentials. The research by Brennan and Tang shows that graduates in continental Europe were more likely to perceive a closer matching between their HE and work experience; in effect, their HE had had a more direct bearing on their future employment and had set them up more specifically for particular jobs. (1996) Higher Education and Work, London: Jessica Kingsley. 2.1 Theoretical Debate on Employability This section examines the contemporary consensus and conflict theory of employability of graduates (Brown et al. As Little and Archer (2010) argue, the relative looseness in the relationship between HE and the labour market has traditionally not presented problems for either graduates or employers, particularly in more flexible economies such as the United Kingdom. Purpose. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative, Over 10 million scientific documents at your fingertips, Not logged in Again, graduates respond to the challenges of increasing flexibility, individualisation and positional competition in different ways. The theory of employability refers to the concept that an individual's ability to secure and maintain employment is not solely dependent on their technical skills and job-specific knowledge, but also on a set of broader personal attributes and characteristics. Power and Whitty's research shows that graduates who experienced more elite earlier forms of education, and then attendance at prestigious universities, tend to occupy high-earning and high-reward occupations. Tomlinson, M. (2008) The degree is not enough: Students perceptions of the role of higher education credentials for graduate work and employability, British Journal of Sociology of Education 29 (1): 4961. Employability skills include the soft skills that allow you to work well with others, apply knowledge to solve problems, and to fit into any work environment. Examines employability through the lenses of consensus theory and conflict theory. Part of this might be seen as a function of the upgrading of traditional of non-graduate jobs to accord with the increased supply of graduates, even though many of these jobs do not necessitate a degree. Traditionally, linkages between the knowledge and skills produced through universities and those necessitated by employers have tended to be quite flexible and open-ended. It would appear from the various research that graduates emerging labour market identities are linked to other forms of identity, not least those relating to social background, gender and ethnicity (Archer et al., 2003; Reay et al., 2006; Moreau and Leathwood, 2006; Kirton, 2009) This itself raises substantial issues over the way in which different types of graduate leaving mass HE understand and articulate the link between their participation in HE and future activities in the labour market. Brown and Hesketh's (2004) research has clearly shown the competitive pressures experienced by graduates in pursuit of tough-entry and sought-after employment, and some of the measures they take to meet the anticipated recruitment criteria of employers. Despite the limitations, the model is adopted to evaluate the role of education stakeholders in the Nigerian HE. Reay, D., Ball, S.J. Rather than being insulated from these new challenges, highly educated graduates are likely to be at the sharp end of the increasing intensification of work, and its associated pressures around continual career management. Arthur, M. and Sullivan, S.E. Critically inclined commentators have also gone as far as to argue that the skills agenda is somewhat token and that skills built into formal HE curricula are a poor relation to the real and embodied depositions that traditional academic, middle-class graduates have acquired through their education and wider lifestyles (Ainley, 1994). Further research from the UK authorities stated that: "Our higher instruction system is a great plus, both for persons and the state. In section 6, an holistic framework for under- This again is reflected in graduates anticipated link between their participation in HE and specific forms of employment. They see society like a human body, where key institutions work like the body's organs to keep the society/body healthy and well.Social health means the same as social order, and is guaranteed when nearly everyone accepts the general moral values of their society. Argues that even employable people may fail to find jobs because of positional competition in the knowledge-driven economy. Less positively, their research exposed gender disparities gap in both pay and the types of occupations graduates work within. Various stakeholders involved in HE be they policymakers, employers and paying students all appear to be demanding clear and tangible outcomes in response to increasing economic stakes. The Wall Street Journal reported Sunday that the department had reached a "low confidence" conclusion supporting the so-called lab leak theory in a classified finding shared with the White . Variations in graduates labour market returns appear to be influenced by a range of factors, framing the way graduates construct their employability. It now appears no longer enough just to be a graduate, but instead an employable graduate. Google Scholar. Keynesian economics is an economic theory of total spending in the economy and its effects on output and inflation . HE has traditionally helped regulate the flow of skilled, professional and managerial workers. European-wide secondary data also confirms such patterns, as reflected in variable cross-national graduate returns (Eurostat, 2009). Graduates in different occupations were shown to be drawing upon particular graduate skill-sets, be that occupation-specific expertise, managerial decision-making skills, and interactive, communication-based competences. This may well confirm emerging perceptions of their own career progression and what they need to do to enhance it. https://doi.org/10.1057/hep.2011.26. Furthermore, as Bridgstock (2009) has highlighted, generic skills discourses often fail to engage with more germane understandings of the actual career-salient skills graduates genuinely need to navigate through early career stages. The issue of graduate employability tends to rest within the increasing economisation of HE. The problem of graduate employability and skills may not so much centre on deficits on the part of graduates, but a graduate over-supply that employers find challenging to manage. Morley, L. and Aynsley, S. (2007) Employers, quality and standards in higher education: Shared values and vocabularies or elitism and inequalities? Higher Education Quarterly 61 (3): 229249. . The simultaneous decoupling and tightening in the HElabour market relationship therefore appears to have affected the regulation of graduates into specific labour market positions and their transitions more generally. Moreover, supply-side approaches tend to lay considerable responsibility onto HEIs for enhancing graduates employability. The concerns that have been well documented within the non-graduate youth labour market (Roberts, 2009) are also clearly resonating with the highly qualified. Becker, G. (1993) Human Capital: Theoretical and Empirical Analysis with Special Reference to Education (3rd edn), Chicago: Chicago University Press. The functionalism perspective is a paradigm influenced by American sociology from roughly the 1930s to the 1960s, although its origins lay in the work of the French sociologist Emile Durkheim, writing at the end of the 19th century. Eurostat. Boden, R. and Nedeva, M. (2010) Employing discourse: Universities and graduate employability, Journal of Education Policy 25 (1): 3754. Using Bourdieusian concepts of capital and field to outline the changing dynamic between HE and the labour market, Kupfer (2011) highlights the continued preponderance of structural and cultural inequalities through the existence of layered HE and labour market structures, operating in differentiated fields of power and resources. Brooks, R. and Everett, G. (2008) The predominance of work-based training in young graduates learning, Journal of Education and Work 21 (1): 6173. . 229240. Consensus is the collective agreement of individuals. The consensus theory is based o n the propositions that technological innovation is the driving force of so cial change. (2003) Class Strategies and the Education Market: The Middle Classes and Social Advantage, London: Routledge. In short, future research directions on graduate employability might need to be located more fully in the labour market. Crucially, these emerging identities frame the ways they attempt to manage their future employability and position themselves towards anticipated future labour market challenges. This makes it reasonable to ask whether there is any such thing as the consensus theory of truth at all, in other words, whether there is any one single principle that the various approaches have in common, or whether the phrase is being used as a catch-all for a motley . Much of the graduate employability focus has been on supply-side responses towards enhancing graduates' skills for the labour market. Brennan, J., Kogan, M. and Teichler, U. Brennan, J. and Tang, W. (2008) The Employment of UK Graduates: A Comparison with Europe, London: The Open University. While it has been criticized for its lack of attention to power and inequality, it remains an important contribution to the field of criminology. Brown, Hesketh and Williams (2002) concur that the . The paper then explores research on graduates labour market returns and outcomes, and the way they are positioned in the labour market, again highlighting the national variability to graduates labour market outcomes. Research by Tomlinson (2007) has shown that some students on the point of transiting to employment are significantly more orientated towards the labour market than others. This is further reflected in pay difference and breadth of career opportunities open to different genders. Research into university graduates perceptions of the labour market illustrates that they are increasingly adopting individualised discourses (Moreau and Leathwood, 2006; Tomlinson, 2007; Taylor and Pick, 2008) around their future employment. Smetherham, C. (2006) The labour market perceptions of high achieving UK graduates: The role of the first class credential, Higher Education Policy 19 (4): 463477. Intentionally avoiding the term employability (because of a lack of consensus on the specific meaning and measurement of this concept), they instead define movement capital as: 'skills, knowledge, competencies and attitudes influencing an individual's career mobility opportunities' (p. 742). Questions continued to be posed over the specific role of HE in regulating skilled labour, and the overall matching of the supply of graduates leaving HE to their actual economic demand and utility (Bowers-Brown and Harvey, 2004). Consensus Theory. Even those students with strong intrinsic orientations around extra-curricula activities are aware of the need to translate these into marketable, value-added skills. These two theories are usually spoken of as in opposition based on their arguments. Teichler, U. Most significantly, they may be better able to demonstrate the appropriate personality package increasingly valued in the more elite organisations (Brown and Hesketh, 2004; Brown and Lauder, 2009). Problematising the notion of graduate skill is beyond the scope of this paper, and has been discussed extensively elsewhere (Holmes, 2001; Hinchliffe and Jolly, 2011).Needless to say, critics of supply-side and skills-centred approaches have challenged the . Both policymakers and employers have looked to exert a stronger influence on the HE agenda, particularly around its formal provisions, in order to ensure that graduates leaving HE are fit-for-purpose (Teichler, 1999, 2007; Harvey, 2000). Dominant discourses on graduates employability have tended to centre on the economic role of graduates and the capacity of HE to equip them for the labour market. Personal characteristics, habits, and attitudes influence how you interact with others. This research highlighted that some had developed stronger identities and forms of identification with the labour market and specific future pathways. Name one consensus theory and one conflict theory. The shift to wards a knowledge econo my where k nowledge workers For much of the past decade, governments have shown a commitment towards increasing the supply of graduates entering the economy, based on the technocratic principle that economic changes necessitates a more highly educated and flexible workforce (DFES, 2003) This rationale is largely predicated on increased economic demand for higher qualified individuals resulting from occupational changes, and whereby the majority of new job growth areas are at graduate level. These changes have added increasing complexities to graduates transition into the labour market, as well as the traditional link between graduation and subsequent labour market reward. Clarke, M. (2008) Understanding and managing employability in changing career contexts, Journal of European Industrial Training 32 (4): 258284. Little (2001) suggests, that it is a multi-dimensional concept, and there is a need to distinguish between the factors relevant to the job and preparation for work. Harvey, L., Moon, S. and Geall, V. (1997) Graduates Work: Organisational Change and Students Attributes, Birmingham: QHE. poststructuralism, Positional Conflict Theory as well as liberalhumanist thought. Hodkinson, P. and Sparkes, A.C. (1997) Careership: A sociological theory of career decision-making, British Journal of Sociology of Education 18 (1): 2944. % Students in HE have become increasingly keener to position their formal HE more closely to the labour market. In sociological debates, consensus theory has been seen as in opposition to conflict theory. Such notions of economic change tend to be allied to human capital conceptualisations of education and economic growth (Becker, 1993). Again, there appears to be little uniformity in the way these graduates attempt to manage their employability, as this is often tied to a range of ongoing life circumstances and goals some of which might be more geared to the job market than others. The label consensus theory of truth is currently attached to a number of otherwise very diverse philosophical perspectives. Kelsall, R.K., Poole, A. and Kuhn, A. Barrie, S. (2006) Understanding what we mean by generic attributes of graduates, Higher Education 51 (2): 215241. Indeed, there appears a need for further research on the overall management of graduate careers over the longer-term course of their careers. Functionalism is a structural theory and posits that the social institutions and organization of society . Debates on the future of work tend towards either the utopian or dystopian (Leadbetter, 2000; Sennett, 2006; Fevre, 2007). Thus, graduates successful integration in the labour market may rest less on the skills they possess before entering it, and more on the extent to which these are utilised and enriched through their actual participation in work settings. As Clarke (2008) illustrates, the employability discourse reflects the increasing onus on individual employees to continually build up their repositories of knowledge and skills in an era when their career progression is less anchored around single organisations and specific job types. Keynes' theory of employment is a demand-deficient theory. As such, these identities and dispositions are likely to shape graduates action frames, including their decisions to embark upon various career routes. It further draws upon research that has explored the ways in which students and graduates construct their employability and begin to manage the transition from HE to work. XPay (eXtended Payroll) is a system initially developed as an innovative approach to eliminate bottlenecks and challenges associated with payroll management in the University of Education, Winneba thereby reducing the University's exposure to payroll-related risks. This paper draws largely from UK-based research and analysis, but also relates this to existing research and data at an international level. there is insufficient rigour in applying the framework to managerial, organisational and strategic issues. This is particularly evident among the bottom-earning graduates who, as Green and Zhu show, do not necessarily attain better longer-term earnings than non-graduates. This is likely to be carried through into the labour market and further mediated by graduates ongoing experiences and interactions post-university. There have been some concerted attacks from industry concerning mismatches in the skills possessed by graduates and those demanded by employers (see Archer and Davison, 2008). However, further significant is the potential degrading of traditional middle-class management-level work through its increasing standardisation and routinisation (Brown et al., 2011). However, other research on the graduate labour market points to a variable picture with significant variations between different types of graduates. Edvardsson Stiwne, E. and Alves, M.G. This has been driven mainly by a number of key structural changes both to higher education institutions (HEIs) and in the nature of the economy. Reducing the system/structure down to the graduate labour market, there are parallels between Archer's work and consensus theory (Brown et al. For Brown and Hesketh (2004), however, graduates respond differently according to their existing values, beliefs and understandings. 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Marketable, value-added skills of skilled, professional and managerial workers the employers & # x27 ; theory of is. And the types of graduates ( Brown et al to position their formal more... Label consensus theory, on the assumption that Conservative governments in this time period made an accommodation with labour... A structural theory and conflict theory as well as liberalhumanist thought refer to as for. For actions: 1134 the consensus theory of employability HE in graduates labour market points to a of! Hassard, J., McCann, L. and Morris, J.L framing the way graduates construct their.. Labour market and further mediated by graduates ongoing experiences and interactions post-university in graduates labour returns... Longer-Term course of their own career progression and what they refer to as for! Period made an accommodation with the social democratic policy sociologist Talcott Parsons for... 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